Titanium Dioxide: Potential Toxic Effects on Human Intestinal Cells
Lynskey, J1,3; Kanchiku, T1,4; Protas, D1; Abbas, J.J.1,2; and Jung, R1,2
1Center for Adaptive Neural Systems, The Biodesign Institute at Arizona State University, USA; 2The Harrington Department of Bioengineering, Arizona State University, Tempe, AZ, USA; 3Department of Physical Therapy, A.T. Still University, Mesa AZ, USA; 4Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, Yamaguchi University School of Medicine, Yamaguchi, Japan
‘Functional Neuromuscular Stimulation’ (FNS) is a rehabilitation technique in which nerves that control muscles are electrically stimulated to produce movement and was successfully developed to restore the hand-grasp function of individuals with neurological disorders such as spinal cord injury and stroke (Peckham and Keith 1992, Ring &Rosenthal 2005). Little, however, is known about the ability of upper extremity electrical stimulation to promote recovery of distal upper extremity function or plasticity within the central nervous system (Daly et al 1996, Rushton and Stein 2003). An animal model of FNS could provide a platform to investigate the mechanisms underlying the beneficial effects of this rehabilitation strategy. Currently, there are no animal models of FNS-assisted upper extremity (forelimb) movement with spinal cord injury that could enable more controlled studies to assess the efficacy and the mechanisms involved in FNS-assisted target reaching-grasp-release. The objective of this experiment is to successfully develop a model to produce FNS-assisted forelimb movements (reach-grasp-release and coordinated flexion-extension) in rodents. Electrodes were successfully implanted in flexor and extensor muscles of the shoulder, elbow, and digits of the rodents. The stimulation protocol was able to produce consistent, isolated single joint and consistent multi-joint functional forelimb movements. The resultant recruitment curves indicate the current amplitude and pulse width combination that produces the largest range of motion while delivering the lowest amount of charge. The technique could be used for rehabilitation therapy after incomplete SCI or stroke.